The land of the pharaohs is famed for its magnificent edifices, from the majestic pyramids to the awe-inspiring tombs and temples. Esoteric constructions that have captivated humanity for centuries, their secrets are still being unlocked. But the more run-of-the-mill structures built by Ancient Egyptians such as the simple dwellings of the lower classes and the grander homes of the affluent are super-fascinating too.

Read on to explore these beguiling buildings and uncover their enigmas.

Ancient Egypt was the greatest and most illustrious Mediterranean power for around three millennia, from roughly 3100 BC, when Lower and Upper Egypt united to the civilisation's conquest by Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC. And it remained a major player until the defeat of Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony by the Roman Emperor Octavian in 31 BC.

Sustained by the fertile Nile floodplain, the Ancient Egyptians, whose population peaked at an estimated three million, developed ingenious farming techniques and are renowned for their hieroglyphic writing, art, scientific achievements and of course those monumental buildings that have stood the test of time.

Forests in Ancient Egypt were virtually non-existent: the primary source of wood was from trees along the Nile, such as acacias and sycamores.

Given timber was extremely scarce, the civilisation's earliest homes were simple huts made from papyrus reeds or basic wattle and daub, which involved slapping cob made up of mud, sand, straw and water onto a woven reed frame.

Later on, mud bricks were used to build more complex dwellings. The mud was collected during the River Nile's annual flood, mixed with straw as well as sand and gravel from the desert, which was then placed in moulds to dry hard in the sun.

To build walls, the bricks were laid in overlapping patterns and held in place with mud mortar. Roofs tended to be fashioned from palm logs, woven sticks and palm leaves, while reed mats covered the earth floors.

Upper-class homes and sacred structures such as pyramids, temples and tombs were often made from far more sturdy sandstone, limestone and granite. 

The methods used to build the pyramids, particularly those at Giza, are still a subject of debate among scholars. The traditional view is that the pyramids were constructed using a series of ramps—either straight or zigzagging—that allowed the workers to move the massive stones to higher levels as construction progressed.

New theories suggest that the pyramids were built by using sloping and encircling brick, earth and stone embankments that were enlarged as the structure rose. Remarkable feats of engineering, they seem impossible given the technology of the time. 

It's been surmised that the stone blocks that make up the pyramids were hoisted up ramps on the embankments using sledges, rollers and levers, but how they were transported to the construction sites from distant quarries is even more baffling.

Recent discoveries indicate the workers wet the desert sand to make it easier to haul the weighty stones on sledges and that they exploited a long dried-up tributary of the Nile. From this, they purportedly constructed a network of canals and basins that linked the quarries to the Giza plateau so they could transport the stones by boat.

But there's no consensus on how the stones were moved, while the methods the Ancient Egyptians used to quarry and cut the exceptionally hard granite are still shrouded in mystery.

Early in the civilisation, the Ancient Egyptians lived in reed or wattle and daub huts supported by poles. They upgraded to mud brick houses during the First Dynasty from around 2925 to 2775 BC. However, the lower classes used simple wattle and daub structures or dwellings that combined mud brick and wattle and daub for a long time after that.

The homes of the poorest people were no more than one brick thick and very basic. Homes of better-off workers, scribes and other ordinary folk tended to follow an identical design and would have had double-thick brick walls. These houses were at the mercy of the elements and had to be rebuilt frequently. Few have survived, unlike the pyramids and other extra-durable sandstone, limestone and granite structures.

The walls of these simple homes were dotted with 'magical' bricks made from finer Nile clay that were embedded with amulets to ward off evil. Spanning around 860 square feet, the typical worker's home comprised two to four rooms separated by reed screens, along with a kitchen, a cellar or two and an enclosed courtyard where animals were kept.

Wood was in short supply, so its use was restricted to doorways, the odd piece of furniture and ceiling support, with the flat roof consisting of palm logs, woven sticks and palm leaves. Windows were small and positioned high on the walls to reduce harsh sunlight entering the home.

Furniture was minimal in the houses of ordinary Ancient Egyptians. They slept either on the floor atop reed mats, or on mat-covered mud-brick benches. These were used for sitting during the day too, though most Ancient Egyptians owned stools.

The poorest had to make do with woven papyrus versions but the more well-to-do workers could stretch to wooden stools with leather or wool seats. Tables were uncommon in modest abodes, with wooden boards or tall stands used to hold food and other items, while foodstuffs, clothing and household goods were stored in woven reed chests, boxes, baskets and clay pots.

Other furnishings that would have featured in a typical lower-class home include a simple shrine to the household gods or a statue of a deity, and multiple pottery oil lamps.

In contrast, the homes of the elite were sumptuous affairs. Though mud brick was also used as a building material for the dwellings of the wealthy as well, sandstone or limestone was often used to construct the first floor, while the very rich could afford villas and palaces made entirely from stone, but even they frequently opted for mud brick. The walls were whitewashed to radiate heat away and keep the interiors cool.

Built around a central courtyard with palm trees for shade and pools with fragrant lotus blossoms, the houses of the rich featured dozens of rooms with high ceilings supported by ornate columns. The interiors were decorated with colourful murals depicting hieroglyphics, animals, flowers, landscape scenes and images of the gods.

Wealthy Egyptians enjoyed all the mod cons of the time, including private wells and aqueducts for fresh water, bathrooms and indoor toilets. As a form of air conditioning, their homes incorporated hooded wind catchers in the roofs, while clay pots were filled with cold water and moistened reeds or wet cloths were placed over the windows to promote evaporative cooling. Their homes also had large kitchens, separate servants' quarters, stables and granaries.

Shrines to the gods would have been elaborate. In terms of furniture, the wealthy could afford pieces fashioned from expensive high-quality cedar wood imported from Byblos (present-day Lebanon). They owned high-end wooden stools, tables, chests and beds with soft mattresses and headrests carved with images of gods to protect them from demons.

The moneyed denizens of Ancient Egypt also had the means to acquire rugs shipped from Persia, gold vases, precious jewellery and statues from Nubia, as well as ebony and ivory ornaments from African kingdoms.

They splurged on pricey cosmetics from present-day Iran and Afghanistan, as well as ostrich feather fans and mirrors made from highly polished Cypriot copper, which were great luxuries in the land of the pharaohs. The most cherished objects would have been buried with their owners for use in the afterlife instead of bequeathing them to relatives.

Unlike the overwhelming majority of mud brick houses, Ancient Egypt's monumental pyramids, tombs and temples were built in areas unaffected by seasonal Nile flooding and many have survived to the present day. The earliest tombs were rectangular mud brick constructions Egyptologists call mastabas. Tombs took the form of the iconic stone pyramids during the Old Kingdom around 2575 to 2130 BC.

Temples, which tended to be built from stone, were of two types: cult and funerary. Cult temples were devoted to the worship of a particular god, while funerary temples were for venerating deceased pharaohs. Other monumental Ancient Egyptian structures include fortresses, obelisks and gigantic statues, such as the Great Sphinx of Giza.

The first pyramid built by the Ancient Egyptians, the Step Pyramid of the Pharaoh Djoser, is the earliest important stone building in Egypt. It dates from the 27th century BC. Situated south of Cairo at the centre of the Ṣaqqarah Necropolis in what was once the kingdom's capital of Memphis, it began as a flat-roofed mastaba tomb and grew to become a six-tiered stone and clay structure standing around 60 metres (197 feet) tall.

The handiwork of the world's first named architect Imhotep, who was later worshipped as the god of wisdom and medicine, the pyramid was orientated to the cardinal points of north, south, east, and west, and was originally faced in dazzling white limestone.

The original pyramid is thought to have been built as a way of protecting the pharaoh's burial place from tomb robbers. It covered a vast underground structure with as many as 400 rooms. Thieves did eventually find a way in, though, and made off with its contents, which included Djoser's mummy, statues of the pharaoh and various gods, as well as other valuables.

That said, the wider complex is still revealing its secrets. Mere months ago, archaeologists uncovered the oldest mummy in existence from a newly discovered tomb near the pyramid. Complete and covered in gold, it was identified as a wealthy dignitary called Djed Sepsh and is a staggering 4,300 years old. Archaeologists also discovered nine statues concealed behind a false door, along with other precious artefacts.

The oldest and only surviving Wonder of the Ancient World, the incredible Great Pyramid of Giza was completed around 2560 BC. Initially towering 481 feet over the Giza plateau, the pyramid was the world's tallest human-made structure for more than 3,800 years until it was surpassed by the spire of England's Lincoln Cathedral.

Like the Step Pyramid of Djoser, the Great Pyramid was orientated to the cardinal points, pretty much perfectly, so much so that experts still struggle to explain how the Ancient Egyptians pulled off such a feat, with a recent hypothesis suggesting it was undertaken at the autumnal equinox.

Built to serve as the tomb for the Pharaoh Khufu, it's believed to have been designed by his vizier Hemiunu. The pyramid comprises over two million stone blocks, some of which are so large and heavy that, as we've mentioned, archaeologists are still unsure how the Ancient Egyptians managed to quarry, transport and raise them into place.

The pyramid contains three known chambers: the granite King's Chamber, Queen's Chamber and Grand Gallery. Though it was first excavated using scientific techniques way back in 1880, the edifice continues to throw up intriguing surprises.

In 2023, the existence of a 30-foot-long hidden corridor detected in 2016 was finally confirmed, while experts are still puzzled as to the purpose of a mysterious 98-foot void within the structure that was revealed in 2017.

The oldest known monumental sculpture in Egypt, the perennially enigmatic Great Sphinx of Giza is another Ancient Egyptian structure that has enthralled and mystified archaeologists for centuries. At 240 feet long and 66 feet high, it remains one of the world's biggest statues.

The Ancient Egyptian sphinx was a spiritual guardian, while in the Greek tradition, it devoured anyone who couldn't answer its riddle. With a lion's body and human head, the Great Sphinx is believed to represent the Pharaoh Khafre or his father Khufu but the exact identity of the pharaoh represented by the Sphinx is still a subject of scholarly debate and remains uncertain.

It was carved in the 26th century BC from a single chunk of limestone. According to some experts, it would have taken 100 workers three years to carve, while residues of pigment indicate it was originally painted in bright colours.

Mystery and tall stories surround the Great Sphinx. Some say its famously missing nose was shot off by Napoleon's troops around the turn of the 18th century but pictures from before this time depict a noseless statue.

Another story recounts that it was damaged in the 14th century by a pious Sufi Muslim railing against idolatry. Madcap theories about the Great Sphinx abound, including one that contends it hides the fabled lost library of Atlantis and another that states the statue was built by aliens.

Intriguingly, a recent study by New York University appears to confirm that the Great Sphinx's distinctive form was actually shaped by the weather rather than humans. Instead of starting it from scratch, stoneworkers simply tweaked the natural formation to create the striking sculpture.

The second-largest ancient religious site in the world after Cambodia's Angkor Wat, Karnak, which is situated near modern-day Luxor (ancient Thebes), sprawls over almost 200 acres, equivalent to around 284 football pitches, and is big enough to fit 10 cathedrals.

Construction began during the reign of Senusret I and continued for more than 1000 years. The complex features a bewildering array of temples, kiosks, sanctuaries and other structures. But the most important building is the Temple of Amun-Re, which is renowned for its Great Hypostyle Hall containing 134 massive columns.

The leading place of worship during Ancient Egypt's New Kingdom period, the complex wows with the spectacular Avenue of Sphinxes, a 1.7-mile-long road lined with 1,050 statues of sphinxes and rams that runs to Luxor Temple. Buried under sand for centuries, the thoroughfare was reopened to great fanfare in 2021 after years of excavations.

One of the most magical features of the complex is the Kheper Scarab statue. The scarab was the Ancient Egyptian's number one lucky charm. According to age-old superstition, walking around the sculpture three times counter-clockwise will make you rich, five laps will cancel out envy and bring good fortune, while seven laps will solve any romantic problems you may have and grant you your heart's desire.

Obelisks are among the best-known Ancient Egyptian monuments. These spellbinding monoliths were commissioned by the pharaohs to honour dead kings and gods, particularly the sun deity Ra. They were originally placed at the entrance of temples.

Incredibly, out of the approximately 30 obelisks that remain in existence, only a few still stand in Egypt. The majority are overseas. Italy has the lion's share – its obelisks were plundered by the Romans following the death of Cleopatra VII, while other countries received obelisks as gifts. For example, the two obelisks known as Cleopatra's Needles were presented to the UK and USA in the 19th century.

The UK's Cleopatra's Needle stands on the Victoria Embankment in London, while the USA's version graces New York's Central Park. Both obelisks date from the 15th century BC and have a height of around 69 feet.

The monuments were removed from the ruins of the Caesareum of Alexandria. Transportation of the UK's Cleopatra's Needle was paid for by surgeon Sir Erasmus Wilson, while shipping for America's monolith was covered by railroad magnate William Henry Vanderbilt. Over the years, Egyptian authorities have raised concerns about the poor state of the monuments, which are much-eroded, and calls have often been made to return them to their original home.

Considered one of the most glorious masterpieces of the ancient world, the Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut consists of a series of stunning columned terraces that jut out from the cliffs of Deir el-Bahari near Luxor.

Queen Hatshepsut was the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the first known female ruler of ancient Egypt. Remarkably, she presented herself as a male ruler and often wore traditional male pharaonic attire, including a false beard, to legitimise her rule.

Her mortuary temple was built during the 15th century BC. It was designed by courtier Senenmut, who was possibly the female pharaoh's lover.

During the queen's reign, the approach to the temple was lined with sphinx sculptures and the complex featured verdant gardens that couldn't be further from the barren land that surrounds it today. Sadly, the temple was vandalised over the centuries but since 1961, the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology has carried out extensive restorations.

In 2021, the centre's archaeologists discovered a myriad of artefacts in an unexplored tomb on the site and earlier this year, two vibrantly decorated chambers were opened to the public thanks to their painstaking conservation work.

The second of Luxor's primary temples (the first being Karnak), the eponymous place of worship was constructed over hundreds of years on a site that housed a shrine commissioned by Queen Hatshepsut.

The temple features additions undertaken in the reign of Tutankhamun, as well as Alexander the Great and various Roman emperors. Dedicated to the king of the gods Amon, together with his consort and son, the temple complex includes imposing pylons, sanctuaries and a colonnade hall, along with the magnificent Avenue of the Sphinxes that links it with Karnak.

The temple has been a place of worship since its inception, which is more than 3,500 years ago. The Romans converted part of it into a temple dedicated to the cult of the emperor.

The sacred site then hosted a Coptic Christian basilica in its northeast corner. During the medieval era, a mosque was built over the ruins of the Christian church. Dedicated to local saint Yusuf Abu al-Hajjaj, the mosque has been rebuilt and restored multiple times and remains a thriving place of worship.

Founded in the 14th century BC, the Serapeum of Saqqara, which is situated south of Cairo near the Step Pyramid of Djoser, is the burial place for the sacred bulls of Memphis. These animals were revered as incarnations of the god Ptah.

As revealed in the Channel 5 documentary Egypt's Greatest Treasures, the prized beasts were spoiled with a "five-star lifestyle". They were fed gourmet foods and each had a harem of cows. The bulls were buried with great pageantry and during the 19th century, the elaborate tombs of 64 of these animals were uncovered in the Serapeum's subterranean chambers.

Among the 64 tombs, 24 granite coffins weighing up to 100 tonnes were discovered but only one was intact. It was blown apart by dynamite to reveal a huge mummified bull.

The necropolis didn't just house the tombs of the sacred bulls. It also served as a human and pet cemetery and contains an astounding eight million mummified dogs, four million Ibis mummies and thousands of mummified cats, crocodiles and other animals. Only a fraction of this supersized city of the dead has been excavated, so there could be many more...

Despite centuries of archaeological exploration and excavations, jaw-dropping Ancient Egyptian buildings and even entire cities are still being discovered.

As recently as 2020, Egypt's largest known ancient metropolis was uncovered by archaeologists. Dubbed the “lost golden city”, So’oud Atun, (Rise of Aten) near modern-day Luxor (ancient Thebes) was established during the 14th century BC.

Regarded as the most important archaeological discovery in Egypt since the tomb of Tutankhamun around a hundred years ago, the find has been likened to an Egyptian Pompeii.

While the precise size of the city hasn't been figured out as yet, its dimensions appear to be immense. So far, archaeologists have unearthed the remains of extensive city walls, residential areas and administrative districts, as well as a wealth of artefacts, from scarab amulets to pottery.

Abu Simbel is the site of two extraordinary temples built under Ramses II during the 13th century BC. Carved from a sandstone cliff in modern-day Aswan in southern Egypt, the temples are resplendent with gigantic statues of the pharaoh, which are truly a sight to behold.

Their construction is wildly impressive, but so is the mind-blowing engineering project undertaken in the 1960s that moved them to their present site.

In what was one of the greatest challenges of archaeological engineering in history, the temples were cut into large blocks, dismantled, lifted and reassembled 213 feet above and 653 feet further inland from their original location.

The unprecedented project was carried out to save the monuments from being submerged by the rising waters of the Nile caused by the construction of the Aswan Dam. In addition to moving the temples, engineers even went as far as building a hollow artificial cliff to assemble the structures on.

One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Lighthouse or Pharos of Alexandria is another exceptional feat of engineering completed around 280 BC during the reign of Ptolemy II. It had an estimated height of more than 350 feet making it the tallest structure on the planet that wasn't a pyramid at the time of its creation.

Arguably the first real attempt at a skyscraper, the soaring structure was one of the world's first lighthouses but as it was designed by the Greek architect Sostratus of Cnidus, it was technically a Hellenistic construction commissioned in Egypt.

The lighthouse featured three sloping tiers: a square at the base, topped with an octagon and then a cylinder, while the apex was crowned by a statue of either Alexander the Great, Poseidon or Helios. Just beneath the statue, a raging fire burned at night that could be seen from up to 33 miles away. Shown here is a replica in China's Window of the World cultural park.

As well as saving friendly ships from being wrecked, the lighthouse is said to have served a defensive purpose. Legend has it the building's prismatic lenses could set enemy ships alight, death ray-style, while fire is said to have been sprayed from the top on hostile forces below. The lighthouse stood for over 1,600 years until it was toppled by an earthquake in 1323.

This temple in Alexandria dedicated to Osiris, the Egyptian god of death, is believed by some (though refuted by many) to be the final resting place of Ancient Egypt's last ruler, Cleopatra VII and her lover, the Roman general Mark Antony.

According to legend and lore, the queen died by suicide in 30 BC following the defeat of Egypt by Rome's Emperor Octavian by allowing an asp (Egyptian python) to inflict a fatal bite, while Mark Antony is said to met the same fate by his own sword.

Classical historians Suetonius and Plutarch suggested that Octavian allowed the couple to be buried together. Their tomb has never been found but the Taposiris Magna Temple is the most likely location, according to some experts, most notably archaeologist Kathleen Martinez.

Martinez recently uncovered a 4,300-foot tunnel on the site, which is an exact replica of Greece's Eupalinos Tunnel. That tunnel is regarded as one of the most important engineering achievements of antiquity. But even though the esteemed architect found a number of artefacts there, including coins featuring Cleopatra VII, the tomb remains elusive. Indeed, other experts have discounted the idea based on the fact the Ancient Egyptians never buried their dead in temples, which were exclusively devoted to worship.

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